ignition system

The purpose of the ignition system is to generate a very high voltage from the car's 12 volt battery, and to send this to each sparkplug in turn, igniting the fuel-air mixture in the engine's combustion chambers.

The coil is the component that produces this high voltage. It is an electromagnetic device that converts the low-tension (LT) current from the battery to high-tension (HT) current each time the distributor contact-breaker points open.
The distributor unit consists of a metal bowl containing a central shaft, which is usually driven directly by the camshaft or, sometimes, by the crankshaft.

The bowl houses the contact-breaker points, rotor arm, and a device for altering the ignition timing. It also carries the distributor cap.

Distributing the current

The distributor cap is made of nonconductive plastic, and the current is fed to its central electrode by the HT lead from the centre of the coil.
Inside the cap there are more electrodes often called segments to which the sparkplug leads are connected, one per cylinder.
The rotor arm is fitted on top of the central shaft, and connects to the central electrode by means of a metal spring or spring-loaded brush in the top of the distributor cap.
The current enters the cap through the central electrode, passes to the centre of the rotor arm through the brush, and is distributed to each plug as the rotor arm revolves.
As the rotor arm approaches a segment, the contact-breaker points open and HT current passes through the rotor arm to the appropriate sparkplug lead.
The contact-breaker points are mounted inside the distributor. They act as a switch, in synchronisation with the engine, that cuts off and reconnects the 12 volt low-tension (LT) circuit to the coil.

The points are opened by cams on the central shaft, and are closed again by a spring arm on the moving contact.
With the points closed, LT current flows from the battery to the primary windings in the coil, and then to earth through the points.
When the points open, the magnetic field in the primary winding collapses and high-tension (HT) current is induced in the secondary windings.
This current is transferred to the sparkplugs through the distributor cap.
On a four-cylinder engine there are four cams. With each full rotation of the shaft the points open four times. Six-cylinder engines have six cams and six electrodes in the cap.
The position of the points and the distributor's body in relation to the central shaft can be adjusted manually.
This alters the timing of the spark to obtain an exact setting.
Further changes occur automatically as the engine speed varies according to the throttle opening.

In some modern ignition systems, micro-electronics ensure the optimum ignition timing for all engine speeds and engine load conditions

Completing the circuit

The complete ignition system

The sparkplugs are screwed into the combustion chambers in the cylinder head.
HT current passes from each segment on the distributor cap down the plug leads to the plug caps.
It then passes down the central electrode, which is insulated along its length, to the nose of the plug.
A side electrode connected to the plug body protrudes just below the central one, with the gap between the two usually set from 0.025 in. (0.6 mm) to 0.035 in. (0.9 mm).
The current sparks across this gap, flows along the side electrode, through the plug body and the engine, then back to the coil, completing the circuit.

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Construction of lead acid battery

Overview of lead acid battery

It is the main overview of lead acid battery,working and construction.

In lead acid battery there is a group of cells and in each cell there is one group of positive plates and one group of positive plates and one group of negative plates. The positive plates are made of lead peroxide (PbO2) and negative plate is made of spongy lead. Thus for identification the positive plate as the color of dark brown, whereas the negative plate as the color of light salty,

Construction of lead acid battery

In this topic we are discussing about the lead acid battery working , and construction . mainly construction

you can watch the video 

Main parts of lead acid battery

1. Separator.

It is most important part of lead acid battery. Which separate the positive and negative plates from each other and prevents the short circuit? The separators must be porous so that the electrolyte may circulate between the plates . The separators must have higher insulating resistance and mechanical strength. The material used for separators are wood, rubber, glass wood mate, pvc.

2. Electrolyte 

in lead acid battery dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4)is used as an electrolyte. For this purpose one part concentrated sulphuric acid is mixed with three parts of distilled water.

3. Container.

Container is a box of vulcanized rubber, molded rubber, molded plastic, glass or ceramic , on the base of this box there are supports block on which the positive and negative plates are established. Thus between this supports there are grooves which works like a mud box. The active material separated from the plates get collected in this mud box and it cannot make the contact with the plates thus the internal faults due to the mud are avoided.

4. Cover of cell. 

In lead acid battery it is also made of the same material which is used is used for making container. It is used to cover the complete cell after the installation of the plates in it . it protects the cell from the dust as well as other external impurities.

5. Vent plug.

The vent plug are provide in the cover plate of the cell which are used to fill up the electrolyte in the cell or the inspection of internal condition of the cell the vent plugs  are aslo use for to exhaust the gases generated in the cell to the atmosphere.

6. Connecting bar.

It works like a link and used to connect the two cells in series. Terminal of one cell and negative terminal of another cell.

7 terminal posts

There are the terminals of the battery which are connected to charging circuit as well as the load. For identification the diameter of the positive terminal is design more as compared to the negative terminal.
Hence it is the lead acid battery construction, working also discuss below.

 lead acid battery, working

Dilute sulfuric acid used for lead acid battery   has ration of acid: water = 1:3.
This lead acid storage battery   is formed by dipping lead peroxide plate and sponge lead plate in dilute sulfuric acid. A load is connected externally between these plates. In diluted sulfuric acid the molecules of the acid split into positive hydrogen ions  and negative sulfate ions  . The hydrogen ions when reach at PbO2 plate, they receive electrons from it and become hydrogen atom which again attack PbO2 and form PbO and H2O (water). This PbO reacts with H2 SO4 and forms PbSO4 and H2O (water).

Hence it is the lead acid battery, construction and working.

                      periodic maintenance of lead acid battery .

1. Do not allow the battery to stand idle for long time this may cause inactivation of the battery cells.


2. Do not charge the battery with very high rate of current because high rate of charging causes high temperature rise and excessive gassing resulting in heavy loss of water and sometime overflowing of electrolyte from the battery cells.
3. After every complete discharge, the battery should be immediately charged before returning it to its regular floating service. Otherwise there may be a chance of deposition of sulphate film on the plates.
4. As already mentioned, the battery cells should be charged gently at normal rate so that there will be no chance of immediate gassing and temperature rise over 40°C. Otherwise there may be damage to the battery cells due to high temperature. During charging of batteries, continuous monitoring is required, if gassing starts and the temperature reaches the said limit, reduce the rate of charging. If after reducing the charging rate, the temperature is still approaching to the limit, it indicates the completion of charging process because even the normal rate of charging may produce high temperature rise if the battery approaches to the fully charged condition.
5. The voltage of each of the battery cells should be checked before conclusion of charging and each of the cells are properly and equally charged and the readings should also be tallied with previous record.
6. If the electrolyte level inside the battery cell comes down, it must be filled with distilled water up to the level marked on the cell itself. This is to compensate the loss of water due to evaporation.
7. During filling up distilled water in the battery cell, it must be carefully watched that the electrolyte level in the battery cells should not exceed the line marked on it. Otherwise there may be a chance of overflowing of electrolyte during gassing of the battery. High level of electrolyte may also cause softening the sealing compound on the top cover and subsequent leakage in the battery cell.
8. The specific gravity should be measured after at least two weeks from topping up to ensure thorough mixing of water in electrolyte.
9. The battery should be discharged up to the allowable limit and then it should be overcharged once in 2 to 3 months. The rate of overcharging must be followed as specified by the manufacturer. This operation is very important to maintain the acid storage battery in the active state.
10. When specific gravity of electrolyte is measured, it should not be forgotten to correct it for temperature. So that, all hydrometer readings will be referred to same temperature. The hydrometer should be kept clean with distilled water otherwise the hydrometer will cause incorrect readings and as well as spoil the quality of electrolyte. The specific gravity of electrolyte must be kept within 1.180 to 1.240. Low value of specific gravity decreases the capacity of battery and on the other hand high value is harmful for the battery plates.
11. The substation battery normally operates under floating mode. At floating mode, a constant voltage from the battery charger is applied across the battery during its normal operation to keep the battery approximately in fully charged condition. In normal condition the battery charger supplies the substation load and also compensate the losses in the battery. But in case of heavy demand during simultaneous operation of many switch gears, the battery and the charger, are combined to supply the demand.
12. During normal floating condition the cell voltage, specific gravity and temperature of pilot cells should be measured daily to follow up the condition of battery as a whole. But the same readings of each and every battery cell should be taken at least once in the month to keep monitored the conditions of individual cell.
13. The battery should be refilled with fresh electrolyte once in three years interval to maintain the battery in proper operating conditions.
14. This is should be noted that, the pilot cell of a battery bank is one arbitrarily chosen battery cell which is used to get the information about overall condition of the battery. But one pilot cell must be fixed for one month and it should be changed in next month.
15. This was a brief description of maintenance of substation battery but it is always preferable also to follow the instructions given into the maintenance manual supplied by the manufacturer too.

 please comment below in comment box for any error.

Methods used for the calculation of areas in Surveying

Methods used for the calculation of areas in Surveying:

1. Simpson’s rule
2. Trapezoidal rule
3. Graphical rule

Simpson’s Rule

Statement

It states that, sum of first and last ordinates has to be done. Add twice the sum of remaining odd ordinates and four times the sum of remaining even ordinates. Multiply to this total sum by 1/3^rd of the common distance between the ordinates which gives the required area.

Where O₁, O₂, O₃, …. O_n are the lengths of the ordinates

x = common distance

n = number of divisions

Note:

This rule is applicable only if ordinates are odd, i.e. even number of divisions.

If the number of ordinates are even, the area of last division maybe calculated separated and added to the result obtained by applying Simpson’s rule to two remaining ordinates.

Even if first or last ordinate happens to be zero, they are not to be omitted from Simpson’s rule.

The following offsets are taken from a chain line to an irregular boundary towards right side of the chain line.

0ffset	y1	y2	y3	y4	y5	y6	y7
magnitude	7	13	16	17	21	26	14

Common distance, x = 90m

Area = x/3[(O₁+O₇) + 2 (O₃+O₅)+4(O₂+O4+O₆)]

= 90/3[(7+14)+2(16+21)+4(13+17+26)]

Area = 9,570sqm





for more slides note about survey click here
pdf notes 8n tranvers calculation download

Methods used for the calculation of areas in Surveying

Methods used for the calculation of areas in Surveying:

1. Simpson’s rule
2. Trapezoidal rule
3. Graphical rule

Simpson’s Rule

Statement

It states that, sum of first and last ordinates has to be done. Add twice the sum of remaining odd ordinates and four times the sum of remaining even ordinates. Multiply to this total sum by 1/3^rd of the common distance between the ordinates which gives the required area.

Where O₁, O₂, O₃, …. O_n are the lengths of the ordinates

x = common distance

n = number of divisions

Note:

This rule is applicable only if ordinates are odd, i.e. even number of divisions.

If the number of ordinates are even, the area of last division maybe calculated separated and added to the result obtained by applying Simpson’s rule to two remaining ordinates.

Even if first or last ordinate happens to be zero, they are not to be omitted from Simpson’s rule.

The following offsets are taken from a chain line to an irregular boundary towards right side of the chain line.

0ffset	y1	y2	y3	y4	y5	y6	y7
magnitude	7	13	16	17	21	26	14

Common distance, x = 90m

Area = x/3[(O₁+O₇) + 2 (O₃+O₅)+4(O₂+O4+O₆)]

= 90/3[(7+14)+2(16+21)+4(13+17+26)]

Area = 9,570sqm





for more slides note about survey click here
more notes click here

step by step instructions for changing a fuel filter

Here are step-by-step instructions for changing a fuel filter. Before you get started, read them carefully and make sure that you want to do this job yourself.

Tools and Equipment

To change your fuel filter you will need:

• Drive-on car ramps or jack stands (with sufficient capacity for vehicle weight). Depending on the location of your fuel filter, these may not be required. For landini tractor look at the photo below.
• Open-end wrenches designed for use with filter connections, and pliers.
• The correct replacement fuel filter for your specified vehicle and engine.
• A supply of clean rags.
• Safety glasses (required).
• An approved container to catch spilled fuel.
  

  BEFORE YOU BEGIN

  • Locate the fuel filter. In most cases it's bolted to a rail on the bottom of the vehicle, ahead of the rear wheels. Refer to your vehicle's service manual 
  • The filter has two hose connections: the fuel inlet, which runs in from the fuel tank, and the fuel outlet, which runs out to the engine.
  • Make sure to note the orientation of the filter for proper installation of the new filter. Make sure the engine and exhaust system are cold. Let them sit for at least three hours.

 STEPS

Relieve the pressure in the fuel line before disconnecting it. To do so, you have to disable the electric fuel pump before you start the engine.

To disable the fuel pump, do the following:

With the engine off, remove the fuel pump fuse from the fuse box.

Make sure that the parking brake is on and that the vehicle is in Park or Neutral, and then start the engine. It won’t run very long after you start it up, but the pressure in the fuel lines will be reduced.

Turn off the engine.

 With the fuel pump disabled, you’re ready to disconnect the fuel lines from the filter.

Look at the old filter and the new one before disconnecting anything.

You should see an arrow stamped on both filters that shows in which direction the fuel flows through it. If the new one doesn’t have an arrow on it, look to see in what direction the old filter is installed so that you can tell which end of the new filter goes where.

Remove whatever is holding the old filter in place and remove it.

Put the new filter on in the same position as the old filter.

Replace whatever holds the filter in place, and make sure it’s secure.

Replace the fuse for the fuel pump in the fuse box.

Make sure that the parking brake is on and that the vehicle is in Park or Neutral, and then start the engine and check for leaks around the filter.
if the engine hard to start click here the link to follow steps how bleeding is done

Quick tips

• Follow these instructions carefully. Read and be sure you understand them before you begin.
• Gather all your tools and supplies before you begin.
• Allow plenty of time to do the job so you don't have to hurry.
• Remember that these are general instructions. For more detailed instructions pertaining to your specific vehicle, consult an appropriate repair manual.
• Safety is important whenever you're working around machinery. Beware of hot objects, sharp instruments and hazardous materials.
• Don't substitute tools unless you're sure you won't compromise either your safety or the performance of your vehicle.
  
  

  Conclusion

  Replacing a motorcycle fuel filter does not have to be done by a professional mechanic. In fact, do it yourself can complete the repairs themselves, as long as they take a few safety precautions and go through the replacement process carefully.
  The first step is knowing when a fuel filter should be replaced, and this depends on the type of motorcycle and the filter that has been installed.

The photo is for landini tractor diesel engine EGERTON UNIVERSITY
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